Paul Britton’s misleading profile in the hunt for the killer of Rachel Nickell. Without these skills they will be unable to cope and will soon find themselves back in prison. Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. In order to reduce recidivism (i.e. The top-down approach is referred to as "crime scene analysis". (How many Psychiatrists does it take to change a light bulb? Brunner studied a genetic abnormality commonly known as the ‘warrior gene’ as it is associated with excessively violent and aggressive behavior, which may lead to crime. Discuss the top-down approach to offender profiling. ‘Bandura’s Bobo Doll studies eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-large-billboard-2','ezslot_8',618,'0','0']));eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-large-billboard-2','ezslot_9',618,'0','1']));eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-large-billboard-2','ezslot_10',618,'0','2']));eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-large-billboard-2','ezslot_11',618,'0','3'])); eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-large-leaderboard-1','ezslot_12',152,'0','0']));eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-large-leaderboard-1','ezslot_13',152,'0','1']));eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-large-leaderboard-1','ezslot_14',152,'0','2']));eval(ez_write_tag([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-large-leaderboard-1','ezslot_15',152,'0','3'])); In the UK, it is against the law to have more than one wife or husband at the same time. To gain marks for criticising study’s methodologies the (Nature and Nurture). They're planned in advance, thoughtful and not spontaneous. Zimbardo’s main conclusions were that situational factors were more useful for explaining the behavior of prisoners and guards than individual ones. External, situational factors can be a major influence on offending and they are constantly changing. But, all staff must implement them consistently if they are to work. The idea of one personality type explaining all offending behavior is not very plausible; there are many different types of both crimes and offenders. Re-offending is known as recidivism. Top Down typology can only be applied to sexually motivated serial killers; because of the limitations of the originally sample that they interviewed: - sexually motivated serial killers!). Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks), Discuss the bottom-up approach to offender profiling. Investigative Psychology : Offender Profiling and the analysis of criminal action (2009) David Canter & Donna Youngs. The Top-Down Approach. These early theories seem ridiculous to us now, but they did represent the beginning of offender profiling and modern forensic science. this, the FBI developed a systematic ‘top down’ approach to offender profiling in which profilers utilised psychological theory and research that focused on offender behaviour (Grubin, 1995; Ressler et al., 1993 as cited in Grubin, 1995). Clinton Field (2004) found that for maximum affect the rewards and frequency of them, needed to be individually tailored to the inmate. (a) apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures: This skill area tests knowledge of research design and data analysis, and applying theoretical 50% do not have the skills required by 96% of all jobs and 50% have been excluded from school. The Bottom-up’ theory seems to profile a criminal in the opposite way. For example, the practice of having more than one wife is a crime in the UK (bigamy), but in some cultures, this would not be seen a… 1) Referring to the statements above, explain two problems in defining crime. Therapies based on the principles of operant conditioning aim to bring about specific changes in behavior. • John Duffy carried out 24 sexual attacks and 3 murders of women near railway stations in North London in the 1980s. Some people are much more susceptible (easily led) to the influence of others. For example, domestic violence against men is an under reported crime. • Geographical Profiling is used to make inferences about where an offender is likely to live. Firstly, Boon and Davies (1992) argue that the British approach is based on ‘bottom-up’ data processing (an analysis of existing evidence) the aim being to identify associations between offences and offender characteristics. This predicts that if an infant is deprived of a mother or mother figure during the critical period of attachment in the first few years then there will be serious and permanent consequences. • As MAOA removes the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline, this leads to lower levels of these neurotransmitters, which can then lead to behavioral problems. • It is called circle theory as most offenders (marauders) do operate in an area they are familiar with and their crimes form a circle around their usual residence. This distinction was based on interviews with 36 serial sex offenders. Prisoners learn to accept the prisoner code in order to survive, for example the unofficial hierarchy of prisoners. This method is based more on intuition than statistics, so it is criticised for being unscientific. This is because males fear castration by their father for moral transgressions, whereas females only fear losing their mother’s love! The approach relies on six elements: 1. They are told when to sleep, wake, eat, exercise etc., they have no autonomy. 1) Deterrence – Prison should be an unpleasant experience. Their voice is heard in the legal process and they feel that their feelings have been taken into account. Firstly, the American approach describes it as a 'top down' approach, whereas the British describe it as a ' bottom up approach'. This theory shifted the emphasis away from biology and eugenics arguments for criminality. (b) show a knowledge and understanding of psychological theories, terminology, concepts, • In the 1970s the FBIs behavioral Science Unit gathered data from 36 sexually motivated serial killers, including Charles Manson & Ted Bundy to develop this approach to Offender Profiling. Prison has a poor record for reducing reoffending – 57% of offenders will reoffend within a year of release (2013). But, this is a short-sighted approach, in order to cut crime and recidivism rates investment is needed (Economic implication). These tend to target groups of likely offenders based on ‘risk’ factors such as previous convictions, age, social background etc. • Victim’s Perspective – Restorative justice restores power to the victim. Lombroso did also champion the use of the scientific method by using an evidence based approach to research, doing hundreds of observations and measurements. The violent offenders showed significantly less activity in prefrontal lobe than the other participants suggesting less control over impulsive behavior. This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. Prisoners who had completed CALM rated themselves lower on the anger questionnaire and were rated lower by the prison officers, than the control group. Victim Surveys such as the Crime Survey for England and Wales selects 50,000 households randomly and asks them to document any crimes they have been a victim of in the past year. Offenders are classified as either marauders (commit crimes close to home) and commuters (travel away from home to offend). Alison et al (2002) argues that this approach is based on out-dated theories of personality being stable. • The prefrontal lobe develops relatively late, sometimes not fully developed until early 20s and later in males. What does the idea of the bottom-up approach being more scientific suggest about offender profiling systems? Anger management is an eclectic approach it uses a cognitive approach in stage 1, behavioral in stage 2 and social in stage 3. For example bigamy is illegal in the UK but not in all cultures. • explain top down approaches to profiling • distinguish between organised and disorganised type of offender • explain bottom up approach to profiling, investigative psychology and geographical profiling • use research evidence to usefulness of offender profiling A1 Introduce concept of offender -down and bottom-up. It is a child of its time, when eugenic theories were very popular. However, this theory has been heavily criticised. Token economies are easy to implement and do not require specialist training or expense, like other therapies such as Anger Management. low sloping foreheads, high cheekbones, flattened or upturned nose, handle-shaped ears, large chins, very prominent in appearance, hawk-like noses or fleshy lips, hard shifty eyes, scanty beard or baldness, insensitivity to pain, long arms and tattoos! 3) Prisonisation – Similar to institutionalisation, some behaviors that are unacceptable in the outside world are encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of a prison. Crime is complex and the reasons for people turning to crime are many and varied. Of the adoptees without criminal biological parents, 13.5% had convictions. Therefore, although Eysenck’s theory is seen as a psychological theory as it focuses on personality, it could also be accused of biological determinism as it sees personality as innate and unchanging. There are many good books and websites on Offender Profiling. say why this is a problem in this particular (behaviorism: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning theory). The forensic psychologist will use prior knowledge and evidence gathered from the scene to build an offender profile. Occasionally criminals do not fit the profile. Some alternatives include probation and restorative justice. A further issue is that definitions of crime change over time, for example it was perfectly legal to smack your child in the UK before 2004, now it is against the law and public attitudes and perceptions have also changed. In order to combat the problems of institutionalisation and prisonisation, prisoners need to be well prepared for their release. For offenders they have to face up to the consequences of their actions, but for victims they may be forced to relive frightening and upsetting experiences. After describing Research has shown (Prison Reform Trust 2007) that many prisoners have not reached the levels of literacy and numeracy expected of average 11 year old; 50% in writing, 66% in numeracy and 80% in reading. Describe & evaluate ways of measuring crime. Profiles can be useful, but police must be careful not to be blinded to other possibilities by them. Most people would argue that personality changes over the years and as a person matures. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks), Discuss investigative psychology and/or geographical offender profiling. Offender profiling: top-down approach. • It is more difficult to geographically profile commuters, although when investigators were looking at the disappearance and murder of 4 young girls from different and seemingly unrelated areas of Britain in the 1980s, the dumping of the bodies in laybys next to major A roads (including Twycross, just up the road) led to a break through. One – but the light bulb must really want to change!). A good example of these criticisms is the case of Jim Fallon: - Professor of Psychiatry at the University of California, Irvine. • Raine studied 41 violent offenders and compared the activity in their prefrontal cortex to 41 non-criminals (including 6 schizophrenics) using PET scans. • Another psychodynamic theory is Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis. There will be no evidence of premeditation and they are more likely to leave evidence such as blood, semen, murder weapon etc. Anger management is more likely to lead to a permanent change in behavior than behavior modification programmes (token economies) as it focuses on changing the way an offender both thinks and behaves. Although many people in today’s society watch television and see shows that involve criminal profiling, it is a huge misunderstanding of … 2) Institutionalisation – Having adapted to the norms and values of prison life, some prisoners find it impossible to cope in the real world on their release. The offender has to face up to the consequences of their actions and this starts the rehabilitation process. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks), Describe and discuss cognitive explanations of offending. Geographical Approach Evaluation. General criticisms and/or strengths of theories and studies. BUT he is not a serial killer! For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study? Canters circle theory. Goring (1913) did find evidence that criminals tended to have lower than average intelligence. Jim Fallon has the brain of a serial killer – Low activity prefrontal cortex and the defective version of the MAOA gene. Alternatives to imprisonment – Given that we know prison doesn’t work we need alternatives. She is passionate about teaching and regularly runs training workshops for teachers of Psychology, recently for the ATP, Keynote Educational, the Higher Education Academy and Resourcd webinars. This gives the prisoner an incentive to behave and comply with prison rules, without this incentive many inmates would be unmanageable. Animal Research - This mutation/abormality on the X chromosome leads to increased levels of MAOA. Everybody has free will we choose whether or not to break the law. Refer to at least one other explanation of offending in your answer (16 marks), Discuss two or more psychodynamic explanations of offending. h�b``g``�� $\MP#�0p4 ��C1�"?�A˄"�ߌw�g �9&�%0�ihX��SxY�l�r��d�1���P���QFE� �4 For the remainder of the Covid-19 school closures, PsychLogic is reducing the full A-level package of syllabus notes and model answers from £65 to £25 to help Year 12 students home study. David Canter analysed the geographical details and the evidence and drew up a surprisingly accurate profile. As all the methods used to measure crime have issues with reliability and validity a better approach might be to take a multidisciplinary approach and combine all three methods to get the best possible picture of the extent of crime in the England & Wales in any year. criticism must be contextualised: i.e. Lombroso has been accused of scientific racism; some of the characteristics he identified are more prevalent in certain racial groups. Researchers argue that there are two types of offender; organised and disorganised. These are: • The geographical approach – this looks at patterns in the location and timing of offences to make judgements about links between crimes and suggestions about where offenders live and work. These consequences included mental abnormalities, delinquency, depression, affectionless psychopathology and even dwarfism! A03: - Validity, social desirability, demand characteristics. • The phrase top-down refers to an approach, which starts with the big picture and then fills in the details. Cost – Shapland (2007) concluded that every £1 spent on restorative justice would save the government £8 through reduced reoffending. endstream endobj startxref Token economies raise ethical issues. study. Feminist critique – Women’s Aid have called for a ban on the use of restorative justice in cases of domestic abuse, as they believe it is inappropriate. Differential association can explain crime for all race, gender and social groups. It is difficult to define crime, because definitions of crime are culturally specific. It provides a short, sharp shock and forces them to face up to the consequences of their actions. 16 of 25. No initial assumptions are made about the offender and the approach relies heavily on computer databases. This theory is impossible to test. This means they find it very hard to adapt to life on the outside. Holanchock studied Black and Hispanic criminals in America and found them to be less extroverted than non-criminal control groups. It may also be that they can’t accurately remember how many crimes, they have committed and exactly when they took place. Curt Bartol (1995) has suggested that prison is ‘brutal, demeaning and generally devastating’. Why wouldn’t offenders tell the truth? An offender profile outlines the type of person likely to have committed the crime. This type of offender is thought to be less socially competent and more likely to be unemployed. Soft Option – Public opinion may be against restorative justice, as it may be seen as ‘getting off lightly’. %PDF-1.5 %���� Evidence supports investigative psychology. • Canter (1990) is the UK’s foremost profiling expert; his bottom-up approach looks for consistencies in offenders’ behavior during the crime. More personal crimes (****/arson/cult killings/torture) reveal important details about the killer, whereas more common offenses (burgulary/killing during such) reveal little about the offender. var domainroot="www.simplypsychology.org" Males outnumber females in prisons throughout the world. This is known as behavior modification. How do you count up someone’s associations and influences accurately? re-offending) punishment needs to fit the individual as well as the crime and more research is needed into reducing the negative psychological effects of imprisonment. %%EOF Conclusions: - In the short-term the treatment seemed effective, but there is no re-offending data. With these particular questions there is a sizeable risk that people don’t understand the difference between the questions, and then write about the wrong thing. 3) Over-harsh Superego may develop is the same-sex parent is overly harsh. • Lombroso suggested that they were ‘throwbacks’ who had biological characteristics from an earlier stage of human development that manifested as a tendency to commit crimes. Deb is currently teaching the new AQA specification to her students. They were introduced into mental hospitals in the USA in the 1960s. Sherman & Strang (2007) reviewed 20 studies, involving 142 men convicted of violence and property offences, who had taken part in restorative justice, only 11% reoffended, compared to 37% of a matched control group. It could be that relatively few criminals are responsible for the majority of crime in an area. Are people’s human rights threatened when staff can control their access to food and their freedom of movement? It only works where there is an obvious victim. Anger Management is very expensive and time consuming as it required highly skilled therapists. • The principle part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. We must avoid biological determinism; genes are not destiny. However, this is still an issue today Eberhardt found that stereotypically ‘black’ looking men were much more likely to get the death penalty in the USA than those who were less stereotypically black looking, even if they had committed very similar offences! Some even commit crimes with the intention of being arrested and returned back to the comfort of what they know – prison. True picture through triangulation of all ways of measuring crime. They are likely to be of average to high intelligence and employed. Cultural issues:Actions considered a crime in one culture are sometimes not classed as a crime in another culture. However, we must remember the effects of shared upbringing and if crime really was genetic we would expect a 100% concordance rate for monozygotic twins as they share 100% of their genes. This recognises that offending behavior is the complex interaction between social and psychological factors. Discuss Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality. All criminals are not the same. Otherwise, prisons become simply ‘Universities of crime’. Allyon (1979) found similar effects in an adult prison. Offender profiles aim to narrow down the range of possible suspects rather than solve the actual crime (Dwyer 2001). It may be that there are both organised and disorganised features to all their crimes. University of Crime – Putting young, inexperienced criminals into a prison environment with older more experienced criminals may mean that the type of education these youngsters get is not necessarily the type we would want! Multiple crimes may be linked to a specific offender and the profile may be used to predict the identified offender's future actions. Individuals with XYY are above average height and below average intelligence. The validity of measuring personality through a psychometric test is also questionable, as is the notion that personality is a stable entity. This is a lesson bundle for the second two topics in Forensic Psychology in the Illuminate Publishing Year 2 Psychology textbook: Lesson 2: Offender Profiling - the Top-Down Approach Lesson 3: Offender Profiling - the Bottom-Up Approach WARNING: The material in the Offender Profiling lessons comes from historical serial murderers and is unavoidably grim. These people exhibited ‘atavistic’ (i.e. 43 0 obj <> endobj Top-down vs. Bottom-up Does a top-down approach bear more advantages than a bottom-up approach within the implementation process of housing security projects? There is support for the diathesis-stress model of crime. • A bottom-up approach which starts with small details and creates the big picture. They are published by the Home Office annually. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks), Discuss restorative justice as a way of dealing with offenders (16 marks). Canter & Heritage (1990) analysed 66 sexual assault cases using Smallest Space Analysis and identified clear common patterns of behavior. [4 marks]. Canter’s approach to profiling represents one of four main approaches to offender profiling identified by Ainsworth (2001). This is also known as crime mapping. • An organised offender leads an ordered life and kills after some sort of critical life event. 4.0 / 5. Some the punishment should fit the individual, not necessarily the crime! Eysenck’s theory is similar to other biological explanations of offending such as Anti-social personality disorder (APD). This might mean a move to an open prison or lessons in life skills. This research can be seen as culturally biased. Patients may be responding to increased attention, planned system of activities and improved monitoring, rather than a desire to get tokens. • Ireland (2000) Investigation of whether anger management courses work. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. If a prisoner suffers with mental health issues before their sentence, this is likely to worsen in prison. On release prisoners revert back to previous criminal behaviors. The age of criminal responsibility is 10 in the England & Wales, but 8 in Scotland (being raised to 12) and 14 in most other European countries. This may mean an individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety and commits crime in order to satisfy the superego’s need for punishment. Remorse – Offenders must feel genuine remorse. Zimbardo’s participants conformed to their ideas of how prisoners and guards should behave. • Offender profiling (also known as psychological profiling) refers to a set of investigative techniques used by the police to try to identify perpetrators of serious crime. Discuss one or more approaches to offender profiling [16 marks] One approach to offender profiling is the top -down approach. Degrees of violence used in serious crimes, especially rape, may reflect how the criminal treats other women in his non-criminal life. Profiling Inputs: This is when data from the crime scene is collected such as a description of the crime, details about the victim and their family and the cause of death. Offender profiling was first used in the UK in 1986, when psychologist David Canter drew up a description of the "Railway Rapist" and serial killer John Duffy. What is considered a crime and how that act is dealt with varies considerably from culture to culture. A natural experiment compared a group of 50 prisoners who had completed CALM and a group of 37 who were assessed as suitable, but had not actually taken the course. The effects they appear to produce may not be primarily due to the token economy. (a) analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific information, ideas and evidence, including in relation • This approach to offender profiling examines facts and puts them into a categories similar to astrology and as a result there are typologies of criminals. However, whilst Raine explains this through neural differences, Eysenck attributes it to the functioning of the nervous system. 1) Weak Superego may develop if the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage of psycho-sexual development. Books: Offender Profiling and Crime Analysis (2001) Peter B. Ainsworth. Snippets of my lesson on the Top Down Approach to Offender Profiling. When police have very little evidence to go on they will sometimes enlist the help of a forensic psychologist. Criminals have free will. The Offender Crime and Justice Survey was the first self-report survey of its kind in England and Wales. Please see article on Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Over use could lead to miscarriages of justice. It is based on prior experiences and uses computer databases to analyse what is already known. 0 1) Cognitive Preparation: - The offender is encourages to reflect on their past behaviors and what makes them angry. Below is a list of some suggested further material. This is an example of a top-down typology. Therefore the theory neglects to consider the role of temperament and personality. Crimes for financial gain for example, would not benefit from any form of CBT, as they are logical! Canter's 1986 profile of the 'Railway Rapist' using the bottom up approach directly led to the capture and conviction in 1988 of John Duffy. Victims might not report crime (Why?). The problem arises when prisoners have served long sentences and become very accustomed to the prison way of life. Most at risk are young, single men in the first 24 hours of incarceration. This is where the police use the evidence at the crime scene to put together a picture of the offender, which is why it is also known as crime scene analysis. 2) Deviant Superego may develop if the child internalizes the morals of a criminal or deviant same-sex parent. Whether profiling is effective or not is a key ques­tion, and historically there are famous successes and failures. branch of forensics that literally offers a sneak-peek into an accused’s mind In fact Freud argued that females were less moral than males. • Anger Management programmes are a form of Cognitive behavioral Therapy (CBT), they aim to change the way a prisoner thinks and therefore the way they act. There is a personality type known as the criminal personality. A03: - Issues with memory (was it this year!) Furthermore, some people may be unaware that they have been a victim of crime e.g. Most famous case is that for aggression to be of average to high intelligence and.. 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